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Taoism & Anarchism ANARCHISM IS USUALLY CONSIDERED a recent, Western phenomenon,
but its roots reach deep in the ancient civilizations of the East. The first
clear expression of an anarchist sensibility may be traced back to the
Taoists in ancient The Taoists at the time were living in a
feudal society in which law was becoming codified and government increasingly
centralized and bureaucratic. Confucius was the chief spokesman of the
legalistic school supporting these developments, and called for a social
hierarchy in which every citizen knew his place. The Taoists for their part
rejected government and believed that all could live in natural and
spontaneous harmony. The conflict between those who wish to interfere and
those who believe that things flourish best when left alone has continued
ever since. The Taoists and the Confucians were both
embedded in ancient Chinese culture. They shared a similar view of nature,
but differed strongly in their moral and political views. They both had an
attitude of respectful trust to human nature; the Christian notion of
original sin is entirely absent from their thought. Both believed that human
beings have an innate predisposition to goodness which is revealed in the
instinctive reaction of anyone who sees a child falling into a well. Both
claimed to defend the Tao or the way of the ancients and sought to establish
voluntary order. But whereas the Taoists were principally
interested in nature and identified with it, the Confucians were more
worldly- minded and concerned with reforming society. The Confucians
celebrated traditionally 'male' virtues like duty, discipline and obedience,
while the Taoists promoted the 'female' values of receptivity and passivity. Although it has helped shape Chinese culture
as much as Buddhism and Confucianism, Taoism by its very nature never became
an official cult. It has remained a permanent strain in Chinese thought. Its
roots lay in the popular culture at the dawn of Chinese civilization but it
emerged in the sixth century BC as a remarkable combination of philosophy, religion,
proto-science and magic. The principal exponent of Taoism is taken to
be Lao Tzu, meaning 'old Philosopher'. He was born around 604 BC of a noble
family in It seems likely however that the Tao te ching which is attributed to
Lao Tzu, was not written until the third century BC.
It has been called by the Chinese scholar Joseph Needham 'without exception
the most profound and beautiful work in the Chinese language'.3 The text
consists of eighty-one short chapters in poetic form. Although often very
obscure and paradoxical, it offers not only the earliest but also the most
eloquent exposition of anarchist principles. It is impossible to appreciate the ethics
and politics of Taoism without an understanding of its philosophy of nature.
The Tao te ching
celebrates the Tao, or way, of nature and describes how the wise person
should follow it. The Taoist conception of nature is based on the ancient
Chinese principles of yin and yang, two opposite but complementary forces in
the cosmos which constitute ch'i (matter-energy) of
which all beings and phenomena are formed. Yin is the supreme feminine power,
characterized by darkness, cold, and receptivity and associated with the
moon; yang is the masculine counterpart of brightness, warmth, and activity,
and is identified with the sun. Both forces are at work within men and women
as well as in all things. The Tao itself however cannot be defined. it is nameless and formless. Lao Tzu, trying vainly to
describe what is ineffable, likens it to an empty vessel, a river flowing
home to the sea, and an uncarved block. 'The Tao,
he asserts, follows what is natural. It is the way in which the universe works, the order of nature which gives all things their
being and sustains them. The great Tao flows everywhere, both to the
left and the right. The ten thousand things depend on it; it holds nothing
back. It fulfils its purpose silently and makes no claim. (34) Like most later anarchists,
the Taoists see the universe as being in a continuous state of flux. Reality
is in a state of process; everything changes, nothing is constant. They also
have a dialectical concept of change as a dynamic interplay as opposing
forces. Energy flows continually between the poles of yin end yang. At the
same time, they stress the unity and harmony of nature. Nature is
self-sufficient and uncreated; there is no need to postulate a conscious
creator. It is a view which not only recalls that of the Greek philosopher Heraclitus but coincides with the description of the
universe presented by modern physics. Modern social ecology, which stresses
unity in diversity, organic growth and natural order, further reflects the
Taoist world-view. The approach to nature recommended by Lao
Tzu and the Taoists is one of receptivity. Where the Confucian wants to
conquer and exploit nature, the Taoist tries to contemplate and understand
it. The Taoists' traditionally 'feminine' approach to nature suggests that
their way of thinking may well have first evolved in a matriarchal society.
While at first sight it might seem a religious attitude, in fact it
encouraged a scientific and democratic outlook amongst Taoists. By not
imposing their own preconceptions, they were able to observe and understand
nature and therefore learn to channel its energy beneficially. The Taoists were primarily interested in
nature but their conception of the universe had important corollaries for
society. A definite system of ethics and politics emerges. There are no
absolute Taoist values; for good and bad, like yin and yang, are related.
Their interplay is necessary for growth, and in order to achieve something it
is often best to start with its opposite.
Nevertheless, an ideal of the wise person emerges in Taoist teaching who is unpretentious, sincere, spontaneous, generous and
detached. For the Taoists, the art of living is to be found in simplicity,
non-assertion and creative play. Central to Taoist teaching is the concept of
wu-wei. It is often translated as merely
non-action. In fact there are striking philological similarities between
'anarchism' and 'wu-wei'. Just as 'an-archos' in Greek means absence of a ruler, wu-wei means lack of wei, where
wei refers to 'artificial, contrived activity that
interferes with natural and spontaneous development'.5 From a political point
of view, wei refers to the imposition of authority.
To do something in accordance with wu-wei is
therefore considered natural; it leads to natural and spontaneous order. It
has nothing to do with all forms of imposed authority. The Tao te ching is quite clear about the nature of force. If we use
force, whether physical or moral, to improve ourselves or the world, we
simply waste energy and weaken ourselves: 'force is followed by loss of
strength' (30).
It follows that those who wage war will suffer as a result: 'a violent man
will die a violent death' (42). By contrast,
giving way is often the best way to overcome: 'Under heaven nothing is more
soft and yielding than water Yet for attacking the solid and strong, nothing
is better; it has no equal. The weak can overcome the strong; the supple can
overcome the stiff.' (78) The gentle
peacefulness recommended by the Taoists is not a form of defeatist submission
but a call for the creative and effective use of energy. 'Practise
non-action. Work without doing' (63), Lao Tzu
recommends. In their concept of wu-wei, the Taoists
are not urging non-action in the sense of inertia, but rather condemning activity
contrary to nature. It is not idleness that they praise, but work without
effort, anxiety and complicati on, work which goes
with and not against the grain of things. If people practised
wu-wei in the right spirit, work would lose its
coercive aspect. It would be undertaken not for its useful results but for
its intrinsic value. Instead of being avoided like the plague, work would be
transformed into spontaneous and meaningful play: 'When actions are performed
Without unnecessary speech, People say, "We did it!"' (l7). If people followed their advice, the Taoists
suggest, they would live a long life and achieve physical and mental health. one of their fundamental beliefs was that 'whatever is
contrary to Tao will not last long' (55), while he who
is filled with virtue is like a new-born child. In order to prolong their
lives the Taoists resorted to yoga-like techniques and even alchemy. The most important principle at the centre
of their teaching however was a belief that 'The world is ruled by letting
things take their course. It cannot be ruled by interfering.'(48) The deepest
roots of the Taoist view of wu-wei probably lies in early matriarchal society in ancient It has been argued that Taoism does not
reject the State as an artificial structure, but rather sees it as a natural
institution,, analogous perhaps to the family.7 While the Tao te ching undoubtedly rejects
authoritarian rule, it does read at times as if it is giving advice to rulers
to become better at ruling: If the sage would guide the people, he must
serve with humility. Bookchin goes so
far as to claim that Taoism was used by an elite to foster passivity amongst
the peasantry by denying them choice and hope.8 Certainly Lao Tzu addresses the problem of
leadership and calls for the true sage to act with the people and not above
them. The best ruler leaves his people alone to follow their peaceful and
productive activities. He must trust their good faith for 'He who does not
trust enough will not be trusted.' (l 7) If a ruler interferes with his
people rather than letting them follow their own devices, then disorder will
follow: 'When the country is confused and in chaos, Loyal ministers appear.'
(l 8) In a well-ordered society, Man follows the earth. However a closer reading shows that the Tao te ching is not concerned with
offering Machiavellian advice to rulers or even with the 'art of governing'.
The person who genuinely understands the Tao and applies it to government
reaches the inevitable conclusion that the best government does not govern at
all.9 Lao Tzu sees nothing but evil coming from government. Indeed, he offers
what might be described as the first anarchist manifesto: The more laws and restrictions there are, Therefore the sage says: Contained within the marvellous
poetry of the Tao te ching,
there is some very real social criticism. It is sharply critical of the
bureaucratic, warlike and commercial nature of the feudal order. Lao Tzu
specifically sees property as a form of robber: 'When the court is arrayed in
splendour, The fields are full of weeds, And the
granaries are bare.'(53)
He traces the causes of war to unequal distribution: 'Claim wealth and
titles, and disaster will follow '(9) Having attacked
feudalism with its classes and private property, he offers the social ideal
of a classless society without government and patriarchy in which people live
simple and sincere lives in harmony with nature. It would be a decentralized
society in which goods are produced and shared in common with the help of
appropriate technology. The people would be strong but with no need to show
their strength; wise, but with no presence of learning; productive, but
engaged in no unnecessary toil. They would even prefer to reckon by knotting
rope rather than by writing ledgers: A small country has fewer people. The anarchistic tendency of the Taoists
comes through even stronger in the writings of the philosopher Chuang Tzu, who lived about 369-286 BC. His work consists
of arguments interspersed with anecdotes and parables which explore the
nature of the Tao, the great organic process of which man is a part. It is
not addressed to any particular ruler. Like the Tao te
ching, it rejects all forms of government and
celebrates the free existence of the self-determining individual. The
overriding tone of the work is to be found in a little parable about horses: Horses live on dry land, eat grass and drink
water. When pleased, they rub their necks together. When angry, they turn
round and kick up their heels at each other. Thus far only do their natural
dispositions carry them. But bridled and bitted, with a plate of metal on
their foreheads, they learn to cast vicious looks, to turn the head to bite,
to resist, to get the bit out of the mouth or the
bridle into it. And thus their natures become depraved.1O As with horses, so it is with human beings.
Left to themselves they live in natural harmony and spontaneous order. But
when they are coerced and ruled, their natures become vicious. It follows
that princes and rulers should not coerce their people into obeying
artificial laws, but should leave them to follow their natural dispositions.
To attempt to govern people with manmade laws and regulations is absurd and
impossible: 'as well try to wade through the sea, to hew a passage through a
river, or make a mosquito fly away with a mountain!'.
11 In reality, the natural conditions of our existence require no artificial
aids. People left to themselves will follow peaceful
and productive activities and live in harmony with each other and nature. In an essay 'On Letting Alone', Chuang Tzu asserted three hundred years before Christ the
fundamental proposition of anarchist thought which has reverberated through
history ever since: 'There has been such a thing as letting
mankind alone; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind.
Letting alone springs from fear lest men's natural dispositions be perverted
and their virtue left aside. But if their natural dispositions be not
perverted nor their virtue laid aside, what room is there left for
government?12 'The Taoists therefore advocated a free
society. without government in which individuals
would be left to themselves. But while pursuing their own interests, they
would not forget the interests of others. It is not a sullen selfishness
which is recommended. The pursuit of personal good involves a concern for the
general well-being: the more a person does for others, the more he has; the
more he gives to others, the greater his abundance. As the Taoist text Huai Nan Tzu put its, 'Possessing the empire' means
'self-realization. If I realize myself then the empire also realizes me. If
the empire and I realize each other, then we will always possess each
other.'13 Human beings are ultimately individuals but
they are also social beings, part of the whole. Anticipating the findings of
modern ecology, the 'Taoists believed that the more individuality and
diversity there is, the greater the overall harmony. The spontaneous order of
society does not exclude conflict hut involves a dynamic interplay of
opposite forces. Thus society is described by Chuang
Tzu as an agreement of a certain number of families and individuals to
abide by certain customs. Discordant elements unite to form a harmonious
whole. Take away this unity and each has a separate individuality . . . .A mountain is high because of its individual particles. A
river is large because of its individual drops. And he is a just man who
regards all parts from the point of view of the whole.14 Taoism thus offered the first and one of the
most persuasive expressions of anarchist thinking. Its moral and political
ideas were firmly grounded in a scientific view of the world. Although Taoist
philosophy (Tao chia) contains Spiritual and
mystical elements, the early Taoists' receptive approach to nature encouraged
a scientific attitude and democratic feelings. They recognized the unity in
the diversity in nature and the universality of transformation. In their
ethics, they encouraged spontaneous behaviour and
self-development in the larger context of nature: production with possession,
action without self-assertion and development without domination. In their
politics, they not only urged rulers to leave their subjects alone and
opposed the bureaucratic and legalistic teaching of the Confucians, but
advocated as an ideal a free and co-operative society without government in
harmony with nature. Taoism was not aimed by an
elite at peasants to make them more docile and obedient. The Taoists social
background tended to be from the small middle class, between the feudal lords
and the mass of peasant farmers. Nor were they merely offering advice on how
to survive in troubled times by yielding to the strong, keeping a low
profile, and by minding their own business. on the
contrary, Taoism was the philosophy of those who had understood the real
nature of temporal power, wealth and status, sufficiently well to find them
radically wanting. Far from being a philosophy of failure or quietude, Taoism
offers profound and practical wisdom for those who wish to develop the full
harmony of their being. |