1.
A Note
This is not a biography of Confucius but an informal collection of Confucius’s life stories arranged according to time. But it is not a fictional account either. No part of this writing is the author's imagination without authoritative resources.
2.
Confucius’s Father and
Mother
Confucius was the remote offspring of the royal clans of the Shang dynasty (1600-1100 BC). When the Shang dynasty was overthrown around 1100 BC by the Chou dynasty, one of the family member of the king of Shang, Weizi, was named the Duke of a vassal state, Song, where the Shang clans were finally re-settled. Confucius’ ancestor from seven generations past, Zhengkaofu, was a famous minister who worked for three consecutive dukes of the vassal state of Song, and left a carved ritual vessel, ding, with his words: “After you are appointed as a minister, you lower your head. After you get a promotion, you lower your head even further as if you bend your back. After you get another promotion, you go further to bend your waist. When you walk, you walk along the building to leave the main road to other people. As a result of doing so, nobody can take advantage of you. Then you are able to cook enough porridge to fill up your stomach.” Those words reflect how prudent and modest Confucius’ ancestors were and also show the unfavourable social environment they lived in. It is not surprising that Confucius’s ancestor from six generations past, Confujia (kongfujia) , was killed during a tumult within the clan of the Duke. His son ran away to State Lu for safety, and from then they adapted the surname Con or kong in the present Chinese spelling. State Lu was where Confucius was born and grew up.
Shortly before Confucius died, he dreamed that he was sitting between two columns. It was Shang's customs that the coffin with the dead body in it was located between two columns or buildings for people to pay their respect to the dead. Thus, it was Confucius’s wish that he should be buried according to the Shang's customs, because he was the offspring of Shang.
Confucius’s Father was a low ranking military officer with two major deeds of merit in his military service. Once the army was advancing into the enemy’s city, the locked gate was let down to cut the army into two. Father was strong enough to use his hands to lift up the gate, and the army was able to retreat safely. On the second occasion, Father led an army of three hundred to fight a critical battle so bravely that they defeated an enemy twice as many.
Father and his family lived only a few miles outside the capital, Qufu, of State Lu. Father had nine daughters but no son. To have a son, Father married another woman with whom he did have son. But this son was lame and therefore was not a suitable heir to his career.
In his early sixties, Father finally married Confucius' Mother who was in her twenties. This marriage did not conform to Li (禮), the ritual, and therefore was a yehe (野合), or an "illicit union". To beg the gods to send them a son, Father and Mother went to a nearby hill to pay their respect to the local god. Then they gave birth to Confucius. They named Confucius Hill or Qiu in Chinese to show their gratefulness to the god of Hill. Historical Records says, Confucius was named Hill or Qiu because he was born with an uneven skull.
Father died when Confucius was three. As a young lady, Mother found it impossible to live with Father's family anymore because of disgrace of this “illicit union”. She took Confucius and his lame brother to live with her own family that was inside the capital. Thus Confucius grew up with his mother in his maternal grandfather's family.
Confucius' social ascendancy linked him to the growing class of shì (士), whose status lay between that of the old nobility and the common people, that comprised men who sought social positions on the basis of meritocracy, rather than heredity.
3.
Childhood and Growing up
Aurelius Augustine (
As a Child, Confucius was said to be fond of rites. He used to arrange some ritual objects in various ways and perform rites according to his understanding as play. This reflects the social environment in which Confucius was brought up. It was intellectual, civilized, and rich in rites. When Confucius was eight, a notable saint, Wujiza, came to pay an official visit on State Lu. He gave insightful comments when watching the musical performance of part of the classic Book of Poetry. He is now considered as the first man in Chinese history who showed deep understanding about arts and literature. State Lu was famous for its cultural traditions inherited from the early Chou dynasty, and Wujiza said that he now understood much better why the Great Chou dynasty was so successful and prosperous in its early years after he had watched this long series of performance of early Chou music and literature. As a child of eight who lived inside the capital of State Lu, Confucius must have been aware of Wujiza’s visit since Confucius later gave very positive comments of him.
As a young man of the ruling class, Confucius learned well the six classic arts: rites or propriety, music, archery, driving, writing, and arithmetic. The six classic arts were the curriculum taught in the official schools for the young people of the ruling class. Confucius’ father was a member of the ruling class, but Confucius’ membership was not recognized. Once a major lord, Ji , of State Lu invited all shì (士) to his house and gave a reception. Since the shì (士) was a inherited title, Confucius thought he was entitled to be a shì (士) through his father. To much his embarrassment, the house manager Sun-Tiger (yanghu) refused to let Confucius in, saying “We are entertaining shì (士) but not you.” It was apparently that the marriage of his parents was not officially recognized. Confucius never entered any of those official schools. He managed to learn those six classic arts by himself though he had some teachers from time to time. His well mastering of the six classic arts enabled him to start the first private school in Chinese history.
When Confucius was seventeen, his mother died. Although Mother was not allowed to follow father’s funeral procession to the graveyard, Mother apparently knew where Father was buried. Confucius’s father was buried in a place called Fang, some six miles east of the capital of State Lu. As a mature and thoughtful young man, Confucius put the bier with the coffin on the street. He waited and waited, and finally an old lady came forward to tell him where his father was buried. Confucius then buried his mother to his father’s side. Thus Confucius eventually managed to have the marriage of his mother to his father recognized after they both died. Confucius then remembered that his mother avoided saying the word “fang” when she was alive. It shows how a sensible lady Mother was.
At the age of nineteen, Confucius
married to a girl named Qiguanshi who was from his
ancestral State of
According to Historical Records, Confucius was poor and lowly when he was young. Confucius himself once said, “I was humble when I was young, so I did many despicable things.” In his early twenties, Confucius used to work for Lord Ji as a minor official to manage his cattle and horses, and in another time, manage his granary and storage houses.
4.
A lifelong Example to Model
After
Humans are collective animals and they follow each other’s
example to behave socially. Infants are born with the ability to mimic
grown-ups, and that’s how they learn to speak. Young people often have one or
two lifelong examples to model after, and those examples are usually family
members or teachers. In Confucius’ life, there were no such exemplary figures
among his close associates, not even his parents. Confucius was by far more
prominent than the people surrounding him. Confucius was once the acting
premier of State Lu, and was regarded as the exemplary teacher for all
generations to come in
Master Chan was more than thirty years senior to Confucius, and he served as the premier of State Zheng for twenty two years. Master Chan was also notable for his knowledge and virtue in Chinese history. When Confucius heard of Master Chan’s death in 522 BC, he was saddened into tears, saying, “Master Chan was a love left over from ancient time.” What Confucius meant by those words is that people loved each other in ancient time, and such love became rare in Confucius’ time but Master Chan seemed to be the only one left to show passionate love to his people.
When Confucius was 10, a suggestion to close down all local schools was raised to Master Chan, because villagers used such schools to criticize the government. Master Chan turned down this suggestion on the ground that a government had the obligation to listen to its people’s criticism. Confucius once cited this event to refute a saying that Master Chan was not benevolent.
When Confucius was
23, a hegemonic state ordered all states to pay a tribute at a meeting. Master
Chan raised a request for paying less as his state was a low ranking state.
They argued and negotiated from
In 524 BC, fire started in four states including Zheng just as a diviner had predicted. Master Chan turned down the diviner’s request for a sacrifice to gods. Master Chan Said, “The Tao of heavens is far away, and the Tao of human world is near. How can we know something beyond our reach?
The diviner does not really know the Tao of heavens, and he is right only by chance.” Confucius held a similar attitude towards the spiritual world. Upon the question of spirits, Confucius’ reply was, “We even do not know enough about what happens when we are alive. How can we know what will happen after we die?”
5.
Confucius’ Own Summary of
the Life he had Lived (by You-Sheng
Li,
Nowadays we usually summarize a man’s life by his achievements, and his devotion to his family and his friends in a chronological order. That is a typical life in a modern secondary society. Confucius lived in the ending years of the ancient Chinese super state of primary society, and he summarized his life differently. From a study of almost 500 societies, Erika Bourguignon concludes that the frequency, accessibility and quality of religious experiences correlate inversely with the complexity of social structure. In the simplest and most egalitarian primary societies, ritual trance states tend to be voluntary, conscious and accessible to most people who desire them. The life in a primary society is always mingled with emotional and psychological exchanges, and the life in a secondary society is built with rational abstract concepts and concrete measurable achievements or merits. In his late years, Confucius gave us a summary of his psychological journey which everyone can still relate to today. Some expressions from Confucius summary have entered the vocabulary of Chinese daily life.
Confucius said: “At fifteen, my heart set on study and
learning; at thirty, I stood firm in society; at forty, I was no longer puzzled
by the world surrounding me; at fifty, I knew the mandate of heaven for me and
for society; at sixty, I heard the truth with docile ears; at seventy, I do
whatever my heart dictates, and it always falls within the boundary of
righteousness.” (Analects, 2:4)
6.
The First Private School and
the Visit by Duke Jing of State Qi
(YSLi,
Confucius was said to be the first person who started a
private school in Chinese history. Education had been monopolized by the
government ever since the first government was set up. Education was
essentially to teach how to become a governmental official or clerk. At
Confucius’ time, there had been a traditional curriculum in the schools run by
the government, namely, the six classic arts: rites or propriety, music,
archery, driving, writing, and arithmetic. Having well mastered the six arts
himself, Confucius started to take young disciples and teach them the six arts.
Thus Confucius set up the first private school in Chinese history around 525 BC
when he was 26 year old.
Both States Qi and Lu were among the major states but State Qi was even bigger than State Lu. The two states were neighbour states and State Qi was in the east along the coast. In 522 BC, Duke (or king ) Jing of State Qi and his premier, the famous statesman Yan-Ying, came to pay an official visit on State Lu. Confucius held no position in the government but Duke Jing requested a meeting with Confucius. It shows that Confucius was well known already. No details of this meeting have survived to today except their talk on the newly emerged power, State Qin.
Duke Jing asked Confucius, “How could Duke Mu of State Qin turn his remote small state into a powerful hegemony?”
Confucius said, “State Qin was small but its leaders had lofty ambitions; State Qin was remote but justice and good administration prevailed within the state. Duke Mu of State Qin knew how to pick up the right person from commoners to help him to run the state affairs. Baili-Xi was only an ordinary labour after he was released from prison. Duk Mu talked to him for three days in a roll and found him to be the right man he had looked for. Baili-Xi was appointed as the premier to manage the state affairs.”
Duke Jing of State Qi was impressed by Confucius comments and insights.
7. A
Political Turmoil Triggered by Cock fights in State Lu ( YSLi,
There was in State Lu a political crisis triggered by cock
fights which affected Confucius's life. This crisis shows well the unstable
social environment Confucius lived in.
When Confucius was alive, it was fashionable to play
fighting cocks in the Chinese upper class. Two cocks were set to fight each
other, and big money was bet on which would win. In Confucius's state, Lu, two
lords had a quarrel over their fighting cocks. One was armed with sharp metal
and to damage the rival cock's eyes, the other wore mustard powder on its
wings, which excluded any fair play. It was even worse when the minor lord won
and insisted that the powerful one had to pay him. The powerful lord did not
argue with the minor one but sent troops to take over his manor. The minor lord
made a formal complaint to Duke Zhao (541-510 BC), the head of State Lu. Having
been unhappy with the powerful lord already, the duke sent troops to surround
his clan and their walled city. The powerful lord had often deliberately
committed some minor violations of the ritual regulations to show his disregard
over the authority of the duke.
During the period of the first three Chinese dynasties, Hsia, Shang, and Chou (2200- 476
BC), the society Chinese people lived in was essential primary or quasi-primary
society. In a face-to-face primary society, people have to refrain from
punishing their personal “enemies” to the extreme, as they are all the members
of a society and have to live together afterwards. During Confucius's time,
this system of the ancient Chinese super state of primary society was in a
crisis but a typical secondary society had not appeared yet. The powerful ones
did often appear arrogant and despotic but public opinion still played an
important role.
When the duke came to punish the powerful lord who had used his
power to take advantage of the minor one, the public hailed the duke's action.
The powerful lord admitted his guilt and appealed to surrender to the duke. Instead
of accepting his surrender, the duke determined to eliminate the powerful lord
and take all his territory to the State Lu, since at this point, the duke
received a strong support from the uncle of the powerful lord. On behalf of the
duke, the above mentioned minor lord came to lobby support from another two
powerful lords, when the balance of power suddenly changed direction. Those two
powerful lords thought that they would be the next in line to be eliminated by
the duke. They took the side against the duke and executed the minor lord to
show their determination. When the duke ordered his troops to fight against the
three powerful lords who were in fact all his ministers and remote clan members , the troops refused to obey the order. The only
choice left for the duke was to run away. He took exile in his neighbouring
state, Qi, and died there several years later. During
his absence, nobody took over his position until his son succeeded the throne
after his death.
The above story shows there was no absolute power in the
political system of the ancient Chinese super state of primary society. Power
was well balanced against each other at all levels to make it possible for
Chinese people to still live in primary or quasi-primary society in that era of
civilization. The king was the national leader while dukes were the heads of
the major vassal states. During the late Spring Autumn Period (771-476 BC),
this balance of power seemed to tip a little bit over in favour of dukes over
the king, ministers over dukes, and house managers over
ministers. Confucius said of the political situation that “the stake of the
state is in the hands of the subordinates.”( peichen zhi guoming).
This political crisis happened in 517 BC when Confucius was
35 years old. Confucius apparently favoured the duke’s side but he was such a
careful person that he did not say any word openly
in favour of one side or another according to the official records. Nevertheless, he left his home state, looking for a job opportunity in State Qi after the crisis.
8. Seeking
Office in State Qi
YS Li
Deeply disappointed by the internal tumult in 517 BC that ended with Duke Zhao’s running away and a headless state for years to come, Confucius moved into State Qi in the same year to seek opportunity. He stayed there more than two years until 515 BC. Both States Lu and Qi were notable for their rich traditions from the Western Chou dynasty, which Confucius held as a model of his ideal government of virtue. State Qi was much larger and more stable.
Although Confucius had met Duke Jing of Qi once before, he went through the usual channels of recommendation like many office seekers did in those days. It was fashionable that local lords housed many intellectuals and covered their living costs. As Confucius sought help from one of the ministers, Gaoshaozi, Confucius lived inside his house for a length of time. It was here that Confucius enjoyed the opportunity to appreciate the Shao Music for the first time.
The Shao Music was actually a combination of poetry, music, and dance. It first appeared during the reign of the legendary Emperor Shun around 2300 BC. Shun was originally from the area of State Qi. Following the local music style, Shun created Shao Music to praise his political mentor, Emperor Yao. Since Shun was raised to the status of emperor from an ordinary man, Confucius respected Shun very much.
When Confucius first heard the famous Shao Music, his whole heart was attracted to it. His soul was literally immersed in, or even lost in the music. For a total of three months, Confucius could not sense the taste of his favourite food, meat again. Confucius was surprised by this unexpected profound effect on him. He said, “I never knew music could reach this level of excellence!” (Analects, 7:14) A tablet of stone is now erected to mark this place, and the inscription on it reads, “This is where Confucius first heard the Shao.”
Due to the recommendation by Gaoshaozi, Duke Jing received Confucius in his palace. Confucius gave his famous advice: “Let a duke be a duke, a minister be a minister, a father be a father, and a son be a son!” Duke Jing said, “Excellent! If a duke is not a duke, a minister is not a minister, a father is not a father, a son is not a son, even there are rice and millets, I may not have enough to eat?” Confucius’ words reflected his insights into the chaotic political situation that Duke Jing was facing: Powerful houses of local lords were run like autonomic kingdoms that ignored the authority of the state. Such situations were however commonplace then. (Analects, 12:11)
After their first meeting, Duke Jing often sought advice from Confucius. Another important suggestion Confucius made was to economize on expenditure. Duke Jing was so impressed that he decided to give Confucius a piece of land as his feudal estate. Thus Confucius would become one of the few aristocrats who held offices in the Duke’s court. Fierce resistance came from the Prime Minister, Yanying, who was a famous statesman in Chinese history. Yanying and Confucius shared many views but were different in others.
Backed by the ministers and local lords, Yanying pointed out four major setbacks of Confucianism. First, Confucian followers all had good rhetorical skills. They were eloquent enough to make their radical behaviour look noble. As a result, they did not obey the law and follow the social order. Second, Confucians were self-important. They tended to do whatever they deemed right. They were not good officials subordinate to the ruler. Third, Confucians put an extra importance on funeral, which required unnecessary grief and wasted a lot of revenue. Fourth, Confucians travelled all over the land drumming up support for their ideas in order to get a high position. They could not be trusted with the administration of a state.
Those comments remained as some of the most profound criticism of Confucianism in Chinese history. Confucianism did have those problems. On top of this firm foundation, Yanying did not forget to add his sarcastic grievance: “Confucians boast everywhere about the rites that are, they believe, the only legacy of the Western Chou dynasty. Their rites are overloaded with trivial details, such as how to meet people, how to walk, how to eat different foods, how to dress oneself up, and so on. You will never be able to understand all their rites even you spend all your life time studying them, not to mention how to follow them.” ( Historical Records: Confucius)
Stunned by such a torrent of criticism, Duke Jing offered no answer when he heard Yanying asking, “What is the use of those rites? Does your majesty know?”
Fortunately Yanying did not expect any answers but continued: “None!” he said, “nothing at all. Since the decline of the Chou dynasty, there have been no great sages and statesmen to stop further decline. If the rites of the Western Chou dynasty are of any use, why did they not produce any talents to save the Chou dynasty?”
After hearing those words, Duke Jing did not mention the feudal estate again to Confucius. In fact, Confucian rites are not aiming to solve any social problems or produce statesmen on the level of secondary society. Their rites, in every detail, are the harmony of a perfect social order. They are not utilitarian in any sense. You are supposed to enjoy every detail whether you study it or perform it. Their rites are thus the ultimate goals themselves.
Duke Jing once told Confucius, “I am not able to employ you like your state has offered to Ji. I can only treat you as someone between Ji and Meng.” Judging from these words, it seems that Duke Jing never stopped treating Confucius as one of his ministers. As a newcomer from another state in a culture where hereditary aristocracy remained strong, this outstanding position eventually aroused widespread envy and hatred towards Confucius.
Rumours spread everywhere. Physical attacks or even assassination were planned for Confucius. Confucius’ heart missed a beat when he heard those rumours. He asked for an urgent reception from the duke. Confucius hoped that the duke would offer protection for his safety. But Duke Jing sighed, “I am too old now. I am sorry that I am no longer able to give you any help.” Confucius had to leave State Qi at once. When he came home, the serviceman was rinsing rice for cooking. Confucius stopped him and took the wet uncooked rice with them. He literally ran away for his own life. (Historical Records: Confucius, Meng Tzu: Wangzhangxia)
9. Tough Choices YSLi
A popular Chinese proverb says, “Since ancient time, emperors and kings
have mostly been shameless scoundrels.” Those scoundrels have chosen
Confucianism as their official ideology since 136 BC. Such a choice was no
accident as the official ideology was but a façade to cover up the ruthless
core of this huge centralized empire. This sharp contrast between lofty
Confucian morality and cruel reality has led to heartaches for some, tough life
choices for others. Their founding pioneer Confucius had a similar experience
though Confucius had much more freedom as he still lived essentially in a
primary society.
Confucius once summarized the political situation in his time: “The
stake of the state was in the hands of minor assistant officials.” (Analects,
16:2) The rites of the Western Chou dynasty were strictly a ranking system,
ascribing different ritual behaviours to different ranks of officials. Those
minor officials now all wanted to break the restriction of the rites to show
off their newly seized power. In Confucius’ native state, Lu, the power fell into
the hands of the Jis and two other lords. The three
powerful families used the Yung Song at the clearing of the sacrificial
vessels. Confucius commented angrily: “How could the three families use such
words in their halls? Attended on by lords and princes, how magnificent is the
son of heaven!” The Jis
once enjoyed a performance by 64 dancers in eight rows, which was normally
reserved for the king of the Chou dynasty. Confucius was furious when he heard
of it, “If this can be tolerated, what cannot?” (Analects, 3:2, 3:1)
Paradoxically, Confucius had been very keen to seek office in the government
since his twenties while he had been criticizing the government non-stop. The
reason was simple. In Confucius’ time, the only way to improve the government
and to restore order was to get an important position in the government.
Non-official channels to influence the government were literally non-existent.
Confucius failed to get any official positions in his native state until he was
51 years old, though he had all the qualifications: knowledge, moral character,
and good reputation. Those powerful ones apparently did not like his sharp
criticism.
The power of the three powerful families fell further into the hands of
their domestic officials (jiachen), the officials
they employed in their own autonomous kingdoms. Those domestic officials
thought that they and Confucius shared the same hatred of those three families.
They wanted Confucius to join in their rebellious faction.
Those rebels were looked down on by the public, since they rebelled only for their own sake. Such rebellions were exactly the reason for the chaotic political situation during Confucius’ time. It was also what Confucius had hated and criticized. On the other hand, he had been seeking an office for several decades by now. To him, the only chance to put his ideal Confucian theory into practice was to get support from those powerful lords whether they inherited their aristocratic status or seized it by abnormal means. Confucius was a practical man who was ready to accept compromise. Such compromises might invite criticism from his colleagues and followers and must therefore have been the source of heartaches to those who made such compromises. It was a tough choice!
One of those powerful domestic officials was named Sunny Tiger (yanghu). In 504 BC when Confucius was 48 years old, Sunny Tiger wished to see Confucius, but Confucius was reluctant to see him. Confucius still remembered the humiliation when Sunny Tiger refused to let him in when he came to the dinner party held inside the Ji house some thirty years ago. To show his sincerity, Sunny Tiger sent a roasted baby pig as a present to Confucius, who, having chosen a time when Sunny Tiger was not at home, went to pay his respects for the gift. They met each other, however, by chance on Confucius' way home. The Analects 17:1 recorded the following conversation:
Sunny Tiger said to Confucius, "Come, let me speak with you." He then asked, "Can one be called benevolent if he keeps his jewel in his bosom, and leaves his country to confusion?" Confucius replied, "No." "Can one be called wise if he is anxious to be engaged in public employment, and yet is constantly losing the opportunity of being so?" Confucius again said, "No." "The days and months are passing away; the years do not wait for us." Those words must have struck a cord in Confucius’ mind, and he finally let out a positive answer, "Right; I will go into office."
In fact, Confucius eventually did not go as he told Sunny Tiger. In 502 BC when Confucius was 50 years old, those domestic officials from the three powerful houses formed an alliance to stage a rebellion. They occupied a city named Fei and invited Confucius to join them. Confucius gave a serious consideration and hesitated for a length of time.
When Confucius was rather inclined
to go, he met fierce objection from his disciples.
Gent Roan was only nine year junior
to Confucius, and was quite a unique character among
Confucius’ disciples. He was brave, honest, and sincere but was also outspoken
and straightforward by temperament. Many years later, after Confucius met with
the licentious concubine Nancy of Duke Ling of State Wei,
Confucius had to swear solemnly before
10. Sage Letters
Sage Letters visited State Lu in 544
BC when Confucius was eight and died in 484 when Confucius was 68. Many
scholars believe that the inscription of Sage Letters’ name on his tombstone
was written by Confucius. If those scholars are right, then this ten character
name is the only sample of Confucius’ handwriting left today. Letters is often
regarded as a pioneer of Confucianism, and he certainly showed the characteristics
of a Confucian gentleman: virtue, wisdom, trustworthiness, and knowledge. A
popular anecdote tells how Letters hung a treasured sword on a friend’s
gravestone because he had promised to give this sword to this friend when he
was alive. But Sage Letters’ legend goes back seven hundred years earlier
before Kings Wen and Wu, father and son, founded the
Chou dynasty.
The Analects 8:1 records that Confucius says, “Tai Po can be said to
be a perfect example of virtue. He thoughtfully declined the rule of the
kingdom several times. People could not find the suitable words to admire his
lofty deeds.” Tai Po was King Wen’s uncle. He was the
eldest son and was thus entitled of access to the throne after his father’s
death. He realized that his father had the intention of crowning the third son
but was reluctant to express this. When his father was seriously ill, Tai Po
took the second brother and hid in the remote mountains in the south, where
they founded the Wu State. As a result, the third son, King Wen’s
father, became the next king.
Another
example of such a comity among brothers to give precedence to each other in
access to the throne occurred in the Wu State during Confucius’ time. The
exemplary sage was nobody but Letters, whose name Jizha
literally means the fourth brother named Letters. Because of his virtue, both
his father and the eldest brother reached a consensus that the throne should be
left to Letters, who insisted that the first brother should be the right person
for the throne. He courteously hid in the mountains, and the first brother
became the next king. The first brother left a formal order when he died
several years later: “It was our father’s wish that the throne should be given
to Letters. Let us hand the throne from brother to brother according to
seniority instead of handing from father to son. In this way, it will
eventually reach Letters as our father had wished.” As it happened, it was
finally Letters’ turn to be the next king. He determined to decline it, and the
third brother’s son became the next king. The first brother’s son was not
happy, saying. “It should be Letters’ turn if it is inherited according to the
seniority of brothers, and it should be my turn if inherited through father and
son.” He planned a sophisticated coup, which included sending Letters to visit other
states, and killed the new king in 516 BC. He then became the next king. Once
back at home, Letters did not condemn the cruelty of this coup but went
directly to pay respect to the assassinated king, his nephew, at the tomb. He
shed tears profusely. When one of Letters’ sons died in 515 BC, Letters buried
him in a place near the territory of the Lu State. Confucius went and observed
the funeral.
The
story of Letters and Tai Po shows that the Chinese system of primary society
still relied on honour, public opinion, or so-called virtue to stabilize the
society against various aggressive and goal-oriented forces. Along the same line was also Confucius’
political thought.
Both Confucius and Letters were fond
of the arts: music, poetry, and dance. It was beyond any doubt that Confucius
was deeply influenced by Letters, especially in the arts. Letters remains as
the first art critic in Chinese history. In 544 BC, Letters paid an official
visit to State Lu. Since State Lu was rich in the cultural traditions of the
Western Chou dynasty, Letters thanked his host for showing him a series of
performance of the Chou Music. He was apparently well trained and talented in
arts, showing extraordinary understanding. He gave insightful comments after
each piece of music had been performed. The performance was carried out roughly
in the same order as the poems appear in the current version of the Book of Poetry.
As in the Book of Poetry, poems were grouped according to the states where
they were collected. Letters’ comments on those performances reflected the
different people of each state: their lives, their emotions, and their overall
spirits. The following was only some of
his comments to serve as an example.
After the music from the southern
areas (zhounan, shaonan)
had been performed, Letters says, “How beautiful the tune is! It shows the
foundation of the Chou dynasty had been laid down but everything had just begun
and so was in their rudimentary stages. But through the music is reflected the
feelings of the people. We know that the people expressed only diligence but no
grievance.” After the music from the
new capital area had been performed, Letters says, “The tune was really
beautiful. From the music, I could sense the worry and anxiety of the people
but they showed no fear. It should be after the Chou dynasty had moved to the
new Eastern Capital.” After the music from the Qi
State had been performed, he said, “How beautiful the tune is! The music was so
sonorous and deep, and it reflects the style of a big state. Who set up this
example for the coast areas? It must be Tai Gong! The future of this state is
boundless.” The authors of the Xiaoya were believed
to be low ranking officials. After the music of Xiaoya
had been performed, Letters said, “How beautiful the tune is! The music
revealed worry and anxiety but showed no intentions of betrayal; the music
revealed grievance but showed some self-restraint. Were those songs collected
after the Chou dynasty had started to decline? I can still see that they are
the adherents of the Great kings of the Chou dynasty.”
To Letters, the most enjoyable music
was the Shao Music which was created during the reign
of the legendary Shun Emperor. After watching the Shao
Music, Letters said, “The tradition of virtue has reached its peak. How great
it is! It is like the skies that cover all the world.
It is like the earth that supports all the world. Even
the greatest man of the greatest virtue would not be able to surpass this.
Having seen such a musical performance, it can be said to have reached the
summit. If there is any more music and dance, I will not care to see them since
I have seen the best.”
Confucius’ thought towards poetry
and arts was in the same line as the above comments by Letters. They both
regarded arts as a way of expressing the people’ feelings, and attached great
importance to the arts. They regarded poetry and arts as an essential part of
life unlike the later times when poetry and arts had been separated from life
and became an independent discipline.
11: His
Private School and his Way of Life
Confucianism has been and
remains as a major influence of the way of thought and life in Far Eastern
Asia. Confucius’ philosophy emphasizes personal and governmental morality,
correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained
prominence in
Since
his late twenties or early thirties, Confucius started the first private school
in Chinese history. Although Lao Tzu was believed to have disciples too, it was
much smaller in scale. Confucius was said to have a total of three thousand
disciples and seventy two of them had reached such social prominence as to be
called saints. Confucius’ private school became a pioneering force in the
subsequent social movement, named by historians as the Contention of a Hundred
Schools of Thought during the Spring/Autumn and Warring States Periods. Those
schools formed their own sub-societies where they lived their lives according
to their beliefs. Confucius and his disciples typically formed such a
sub-society. In their hometown, the capital of State Lu, they might have lived
with their own families while gathering each day. Once Confucius moved into
another state, his disciples followed him. So they travelled and lived
together. In a way, they were like the early Christians who lived a communist
lifestyle in a commune. An exception was when a disciple was offered a
government position. Even then, they had to keep close contact with their
teacher and other disciples.
The
Analects gives us a vivid and
detailed description of how Confucius and his disciples lived their lives and
how they interacted with each other, and what were their daily concerns. The
friendly atmosphere and the open objections from his disciples that Confucius
had to face from time to time, suggest a typical primary society even though
they travelled over different states to promote their ideas, which
suggests a specific ideology with a set of values, characteristic of a secondary
society. It is, in a way, consistent with the Confucian ideal: to model a
secondary society after the primary society.
We
are however all impressed by the indirect expression of Confucius’ criticism
towards his disciples. He called one of his disciples “a petty man” and characterized
another as “non-benevolent”, but only after those two had left the scene.
(13:4,
As
a result, Confucius’ disciples ranged from the upper class of aristocracy to poor
families from the lowest class. According to the Historical Records, one of his disciples (gongyechang)
had just been released from prison and another was a former thief (yanzuoju). Modern schools have the right to dispel some of
their students. This was apparently not in Confucius’ practice. The Analects do not record any dismissal of
disciples. On the other hand, it does not mean that Confucius shared their
views when he met
Confucius
also recognized the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules
of behaviour, which is once again a feature of primary society. His moral
teachings emphasise self-cultivation and skilled judgment rather than the knowledge
of rules. Confucius’ teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument. That’s why his
ethical ideals are conveyed more indirectly through allusions, innuendo, and
even tautology.
An
example was that when the stables were burnt
down, on returning from court, Confucius said, “Was anyone hurt?” He did not
ask about the horses. (10.11).
The passage conveys the lesson that by not asking about the horses, Confucian
gentlemen value human beings over
property.
Confucius’ way
of life or Confucianism can be explained in three terms, benevolence,
righteousness, and rites. But the basic concept is benevolence, on which the latter two, righteousness and
rites, are based. Unlike Western philosophers, Confucius did not show any
intention to develop a systematic theory of life and society or to establish a
formalism of rites. He wanted his disciples to continually study the outside
world for knowledge and search deeply into their own souls for the benevolent
aspects of human nature. Furthermore, Confucius seemed to focus on particular
situations and avoid generalizing his teachings. The Analects 9:4 states: Confucius has eliminated four faults in his
life: impossing his will, arbitrariness, stubbornness, and egotism. The Analects 5:12 says, “Our master’s words
on the essence of human nature and the heavenly Tao cannot be heard and
understood.” In fact, the essential human nature and the heavenly Tao will be
the main topics one has to face if he talks about any philosophy or way of
life. It shows that Confucius adhered to the way of life in primary society and
refused to develop any new theoretical system to guide a particular way of life
in secondary society.
The Chinese
character for benevolence essentially symbols two persons or the relation among
men. Confucius gave many versions of answers to the question: “What is
benevolence?” The most representative answer is: “Benelonce is loving other
people.” (12:22) Confucius further pointed out: “The basis of benevolence is
the filial piety one holds towards his parents and the friendliness towards his
brothers and sisters.” (1:2)
Righteousness
lets us know what is right and what is wrong. Rites and propriety let us know
how to behave ourselves according to the norm of the society. Confucius held
the view that his principles of benevolence, righteousness, and rites apply
equally to everyone in society including peasants, government officials, and
the governer himself.
Confucius wanted
to revive the perfect virtue and the classical properties of the Western Chou
Dynasty to build a great harmonious and humanistic society. Apparently, Confucius
aims at the harmonious enjoyement of life in a primary society, not the
adventurous enterprises in a secondary society. He says: With coarse rice to
eat, with water to drink, and my crooked arm for a pillow - is not joy to be
found therein? Riches and honors acquired through unrighteousness are to me as
the floating clouds (7:15)
Here comes the
fourth component of Confucius’ teachings: the Confucian gentleman. Confucian
gentleman, or junzi in Chinese, appeared 107 times in the Analects. More than sixty paragraphs out of the total of 512 are
devoted to elucidation of various issues concerning the concept of confucian
gentlemen. For example, Confucius listed out the six phrases about the six
foils (17:8), the five excellent and the four flawed behaviours ((20:7), the
three beneficial and the three harmful friendships(16:4), the three beneficial
and the three harmful enjoyments (16:5). A Confuciuan gentleman has to
avoid the three common mistakes, and to
guard against the three attempts(16:6,7). A Confuciuan gentleman has to be in
awe of the decree of heaven, of great men, and of the words of sages (16:8),
and shows nine patterns of awareness (16:9).
Confucius has
apparently sanctified the concept of the Confucian gentleman. It becomes an
ultimate realm one has to aim at. The pursuit of such a lofty realm itself
becomes a piece of art in the hands of Confucian followers. It is called life
cultivation. A Confucian life itself is a piece of art to enjoy, admire. If
everyone lives his life like a piece of art, the society will be in perfect
harmony in a primary society setting, but not necessarily in a secondary
society setting.
In the Analects, Confucius presents himself
as a "transmitter who invented nothing".(6:1) Then could Confucius
become the founder of the official ideology for the next two thousand and more
years? He put the essence of the primary society in a new expression that
people who live in a secondary society can relate to. Of course, Confucius did
not have to create any new word but lent new meaning to two old words,
benevolence and gentlemen. Confucius was the first man who sanctified the
concepts of benevolence and gentlemen. They became the ultimate realms a
culture and its people are aiming at. Benevolence became the symbol for human
nature and a gentleman became the model for all people in spiritual and
aesthetic terms.
12. Governor
of the Capital Region
Social power was balanced and checked at all levels in Confucius’ time. The rebellion of the allied domestic officials of the three powerful families was a result of and also reflected the fact that there was no absolute power. Sunny Tiger was once the leader of this allied rebellion, and he planned an attack on one of the three families and arrested Ji, the prime minister. But those rebellious officials did not have absolute power either over the people under their control. As a result, their planned attack was revealed to the three families which had time to get prepared. Ji, the prime minister, persuaded the guard of the prison to let him go by being persistently friendly to him. Like Duke Zhao, Sunny Tiger ran away into the neighboring state, Qi, after the rebellion failed. Unexpectedly, the political situation turned out to be beneficial to Confucius, since he was regarded as the midian between the three families and their rebellious domestic officials. For years, neither side wanted Confucius. Now in a violent confrontation, both sides wanted to recruit him against the other side. The three families admired Confucius for his refusal to join the rebellion and recruited him to the government side. It was nobody else but Confucius himself who cracked down this rebellious city, Fei, which had once invited him to join. But that’s a few years later. Confucius’ first appointment was the governor of the capital region. The power was in the hands of the three families but Confucius was officially appointed by Duke Ding.
Confucius worked
as the governor of the capital region for only one year, from 501 to 500 BC.
Confucius so treasured this opportunity which he had awaited so long that he
employed all his talents and made every effort to make it a lasting success. Historical Records says, “All
neighboring areas in the four directions followed the example Confucius set up
in the capital region.” Confucius was then promoted to a ministerial position
in charge of public constructions. Another half year later, Confucius was
promoted again and became the minister in charge of public security, justice,
and foreign affairs. In this position, Confucius accompanied Duke Ding of State
Lu to meet Duke Jing of State Qi.
This meeting as the
The meeting was requested by Qi but Lu accepted it. Qi was much more powerful than Lu and thus it required delicate diplomatic techniques to deal with this disparity. Confucius’ words and actions were considered to be critical for a successful meeting in favor of the Lu side.
Before the meeting, a minister suggested to Duke Jing, “Confucius is only good at rituals but lacks courage. We can have armed men ready. Whenever it is neccessary, we will kidnap Duke Ding to force him to agree to be our dependent state.” Duke Jing agreed.
Unaware of State Qi’s plan, Duke Ding expected a peaceful and friendly meeting, and did not want to bring any army. It was Confucius who thought of such a possibility, and said, “As required by the traditional rites, we have to take our army behind us as a back up in case of need.”
In accord with the rituals of the day, a raised platform of earth was built. The two dukes climbed onto the platform from two opposite sides and met each other on the top. They greeted each other and exchanged gifts. When it was over, a Qi official ran to the front and reported to Duke Jing, “As an entertainment to our honorable guest, may we present our musical dances of the local ethnic groups from all four directions?” Duke Jing okayed this.
Hundreds of armed men came to wave their weapons, though some of them were colorfully dressed as dancers. Confucius stood up and spoke to the Qi official in a serious voice: “At such a friendly meeting, how could you bring so many barbarians here? Please order them to retreat immediately.” Those ethnic soldiers backed up a little but refused to leave.
Confucius spoke loudly and solemnly, “We two neighboring states are meeting here for friendliness. How can we have so many soldiers? Do you really want to kidnap our duke? It is not pleasing to the gods, it is a deviation from virtue, and it lacks propriety to treat a friendly neighboring state like this!”
Duke Ding now looked at Confucius with full gratitude. Their army was nearby and could come immediately after being called. As a violent conflict was apparently no good for neither side, Duke Jing finally ordered those ethnic soldiers to leave. When it was about to sign the treaty, the Qi side raised a sentence, “Whenever State Qi goes on an expedition, the Lu State has to send three hundred war chariots to fight with the Qi army.” This meant that the Qi State would still treat Lu as its dependent state.
Confucius knew
well that Qi was much too powerful, and Lu was in no
position to dispute its request directly. Confucius said, “As we two states are
so closely linked together like one state, your state has no ground to occupy
part of the
As a small state surrounded by major powers, the Lu State has experienced many humiliations in the past. They regarded this meeting as one of the rare occasions when they maintained their dignity as an independent state. Confucius’ reputation rose afterwards. He was promoted to Acting Prime Minister. Confucius was overjoyed and his disciples noticed, saying “Is there a saying that a gentleman is not afraid in a time of disaster but not too happy either when lucky nocks on the door.” Confucius said, “Yes, there is. But another saying goes: It will make you happy if you are able to respect all the people who are below you in social status.”